Tamil Language History

Tamil language has the special claim of being at once classical like Sanskrit, Greek or Latin, and vigorous and modern like the modern Indian languages. Its history can be traced back to the age of Tolkappiyam the earliest extant Tamil grammar generally to 500 B.C. Among the Dravidian language it is least influenced be 'sanskrit' though there is a certain degree of influence.
The earliest extant literature of the Tamils is called Sangam literature and it is dated between 500 BC. and 200 A.D. Though a considerable part of the early poetry has been lost, some of the bards and patrons decided to preserve apart of it in certain anthologies (about 4th century A.D.). These are the Ten Idylls (Pattuppattu) and the Eight Anthologies (Ettuttohai). Four hundred and seventy three poets, of whom thirty are women, have been identified. These are mainly classified into two. Akam or esoteric dealing with love and Puram or exoteric dealing with war.
In this period, Tamil literature was considerably bound by literary conventions. The poets were keen on keeping up the tradition. The land was treated as five regions viz. mountains, forests, fields, coasts and deserts and the theme of love in five aspects viz. union, patience, sulking, wailing and separation. The poet dealing with a certain aspect of love restricted himself to a particular region, season, hour, flora and fauna. These literary conventions are explained in Tolkappiyam.
Purananuru is 400 verses on Puram themes. It serves as a window on the Tamil people 2000 years ago. Agananuru is 400 poems on love themes. The length of these poems varies from 13 to 37 lines. There are other collections like Natrinai, Kuruntogai, Ainkurunuru, Paripadal, etc., which are quite well known. Tiruvalluvar's Tirukkural is acclaimed to be the greatest Tamil classic. It expresses the most profound thoughts on the many problems of life. Each verse is a couplet composed with great economy of words. The book is divided into 133 chapters each containing 10 verses. The chapters are arranged in three books dealing with virtue, wealth and pleasure.

Indian Crow

This bird, which is commonly referred to as the Indian Crow, comes under the family Cotinga and is more appropriately named the Redruffed Fruitcrow. The technical name of the subspecie or race you see here is Pyroderus scutatus scutatus. There are five known races, all of which are indigenous to South America. The bird in the picture is native to Brazil and is found mostly along the coastline and into the interior near Rio de Janeiro.
The bird in my possession is about the size of our own domestic crow, but it is clearly distinguished from it by the red neck area. There are probably around 300 redtipped feathers on the breast of the Fruitcrow. These feathers have figured into the dressing of classic salmon flies for over 150 years! They are quite rare, owing largely to the fact that the authorities in Brazil and other northern parts of South America do not take kindly to the poaching of these birds. Please do not attempt to go to South America to bring back skins. The jails down there, they say, are not very pleasant!
The Pyroderus scutatus scutatus race is sometimes referred to as the southern race. The four northern races are: orenocensis, granadensis, occidentalis and masoni. There are slight variations between all five subspecies with the scutatus being the most sought after of all the races.
For more information and a couple color plates of these birds, I refer you to David Snow's book "The Cotingas" which was published by Cornell University Press in 1982. You can also learn quite a bit about the birds commonly known as the Blue Chatterers (Genus Cotinga) and the CockoftheRocks (Genus Rupicola).

History of the Mango

The mango originated in Southeast Asia where it has been grown for over 4,000 years. Over the years mango groves have spread to many parts of the tropical and subtropical world, where the climate allows the mango to grow best. Mango trees are evergreens that will grow to 60 feet tall. The mango tree will fruit 4 to 6 years after planting. Mango trees require hot, dry periods to set and produce a good crop. Most of the mangos sold in the United States are imported from Mexico, Haiti, the Caribbean and South America. Today there are over 1,000 different varieties of mangos throughout the world.
A comfort food. Mangos really can make you feel better! Beyond being delicious and rich in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants, mangos contain an enzyme with stomach soothing properties similar to papain found in papayas. These comforting enzymes act as a digestive aid and can be held partially responsible for that feeling of contentment we experience during and after our daily mango ritual. Yes, it is quite natural to crave those mangos!
Mango, both in its green and ripe form is a very good tenderizing agent due to these same enzymes, therefore ideal to include in any marinade (see Mango Marinade under Sauces category in our Recipe Guide). In India they use a sour mango powder containing ground up green mangos called Amchur, both as a seasoning and tenderizing aid.
Mangos are an excellent source of Vitamins A and C, as well as a good source of Potassium and contain beta carotene. Mangos are high in fiber, but low in calories (approx. 110 per average sized mango), fat (only 1 gram) and sodium. Mangos are a good staple for your daily diet.

Gold's role in history, culture and religion

This section of JewelrySupplier.com is intended to uncover references in history to gems, gemstones, minerals, crystals, precious metals and semiprecious stones and to investigate the role they played in the development of the cultures in which they were utilized. We believe examples of royal jewelry and ancient jewelry from anthropology, sociology and archaeology from the ancient societies of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome and especially the work of PreColumbian American cultures of the North American Indians, Aztecs, Mayans, and Incans to be of craftsmanship that has not been equaled since. Where possible in our history of jewelry, we’ve tried to include methods of manufacture, materials and technology. From the bible, commerce, celestial beliefs to modern crystal collecting.
The history of gold is a long and complex one. It has been a symbol of wealth and a guarantee of power since its use first emerged. Because of its rarity, its usefulness and its beauty, gold has caused individual and national obsession and the destruction of cultures, and the emergence into power of others.
Many African cultures used gold on a large scale. In most areas, including Senegal and the Gold Coast, the people used most of the gold to create objects for the court of the local chiefs. The chiefs had workshops exclusively dedicated to the production of their treasures, which were extensive and elaborate and had ceremonial applications. However, the peoples of the Ethiopian, Sudanese and Bantu regions did export some gold.
Though examples of Gold in use before the 17th century are rare in India, Archaeologists have found pieces of Gold jewelry in the Indus Culture as well as Buddhist Afghanistan that date from near the time of the birth of Christ. India’s gold and jewelry use reached its summit during the Mughal Empire’s reign between the 1500s to the mid 1700s. The fashion of this time many included rich jewels and gold, each with its own religious significance and purpose. In China, Gold use began around 1100 BC as inlay in bronze items and jewelry and continued through the many royal dynasties. When the Chinese settled in Korea at around 210 BC, they brought their knowledge of gold working with them. Indian, Chinese and Korean use of Gold influenced the cultures of Southeast Asia but Gold never became important in Japanese culture.

Fish American Eel

Fishes come in an amazing variety of shapes and colors, but they all have three important things in common: All fishes live in water, have fins, and use gills to get oxygen from the water. We have also included a few sea creatures some jellyfish and octopods in this category.
If you see a fish that looks like a snake underwater, you've probably spotted an eel. Most of the 15 different families of eels in the world live in salt water. The American Eel lives in fresh water but swims out to the open ocean to spawn. No one has actually seen an adult eel spawning, but scientists think these eels lay their eggs near Bermuda in the Sargasso Sea. As they mature into elvers (young eels), they come closer to the coast.
The males remain in shallow estuaries, while the females migrate into fresh water. After many years, the adults return to the sea to spawn. An eel with large pectoral fins. Dorsal and anal fins connected to a welldeveloped tail. Lower jaw longer than upper. Tiny, separate scales form basketweave pattern.
The length of the Females American eel is 4'and the males eel is smaller then the female. Atlantic drainages, shallow coastal waters, freshwater streams. Spawns in open ocean. Along Atlantic coast and into associated rivers from Labrador to Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and southward.

Jumping Rope May Be an Ideal Brain Exercise

Physical activity is good not only for the heart, but also for the brain, feeding it glucose and oxygen, all of which makes it easier for children of all ages to learn. Numerous studies show that children who exercise do better in school.” Education is in the age of standardsbased assessment. Students experience learning and make connections based on curriculum that is designed with specific academic objectives in mind.
Some of the most beneficial lifelong learning comes from reallife experiences that cannot be measured by paper and pencil tests alone. Problem solving, communication, goal setting, creativity, perseverance, risk taking and altruism are skills that help create productive, wellrounded citizens. The American Heart Association’s Jump Rope For Heart program can help students achieve many of the academic standards by encouraging them to engage in experiential learning strategies that anchor learning 90 percent better. Students also learn about important health and fitness practices that can lead to healthy, active, lifelong behavior changes.
Jumping rope is an excellent exercise for cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance and coordination. Now researchers are learning that physical activity like jumping rope also prepares the brain for optimal learning. Current brain research supports the need for movement in the learning process. Here are just a few ways that jumping rope may help prepare the brain for learning.
Raising heart rate gets more blood to the brain, feeding it needed nutrients and oxygen for heightened alertness and mental focus. Aerobic exercise grows new brain cells in rodents, and promising research suggests that may also apply to humans. In short, jumping rope is an exercise that allows both brain hemispheres to perform parallel. The vestibular system that creates spatial awareness and mental alertness is strengthened through activities such as jumping rope. Balance and jumping activities provide the student with a framework for reading and other academic skills.

Lion the King

The lion (Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four big cats in the genus Panthera. With exceptionally large males exceeding 250 kg (550 lb) in weight, it is the secondlargest living cat after the tiger. Wild lions currently exist in subSaharan Africa and in Asia with a critically endangered remnant population in northwest India, having disappeared from North Africa, the Middle East, and western Asia in historic times. Until the late Pleistocene (about 10,000 years ago), the lion was the most widespread large land mammal beside humans. They were found in most of Africa, much of Eurasia from western Europe to India, and the Bering land bridge and, in the Americas, from the Yukon to Peru.
Lions live for approximately 10–14 years in the wild, while in captivity they can live over 20 years. They typically inhabit savanna and grassland, although they may take to bush and forest. Lions are unusually social compared to other cats. A pride of lions consists of related females and offspring and a small number of adult males. Groups of female lions typically hunt together, preying mostly on large ungulates. The lion is an apex and keystone predator, although they will resort to scavenging if the opportunity arises. While lions, in general, do not selectively hunt humans, some have been known to become maneaters and seek human prey.
The lion is a vulnerable species, having seen a possibly irreversible population decline of 30 to 50% over the past two decades in its African range; populations are untenable outside designated reserves and national parks. Although the cause of the decline is not wellunderstood, habitat loss and conflicts with humans are currently the greatest causes of concern. Lions have been kept in menageries since Roman times and have been a key species sought after and exhibited in zoos the world over since the late eighteenth century. Zoos are cooperating worldwide in breeding programs for the endangered Asiatic subspecies.
Visually, the male is highly distinctive and is easily recognized by its mane. The head of the male lion is one of the most widely recognized animal symbols in human culture. It has been depicted extensively in literature, in sculptures, in paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature. The lion is the second largest feline after the tiger. With powerful legs, a strong jaw, and long canine teeth, the lion can bring down and kill large prey.[33] Lion coloration varies from light buff to yellowish, reddish or dark ochraceous brown. The underparts are generally lighter and the tail tuft is black. The color of the mane varies from blond to black.

WASHING MACHINE

The earliest manual washing machines imitated the motion of the human hand on the washboard, by using a lever to move one curved surface over another and rubbing clothes between two ribbed surfaces. This type of washer was first patented in the United States in 1846 and survived as late as 1927 in the Montgomery Ward catalogue. The first electric clothes washers, in which a motor rotated the tub, were introduced into America about 1900.
The motor was not protected beneath the machine and water often dripped into it causing shortcircuits and jolting shocks. By 1911, it was possible to buy oscillating, cylinder, domestic washing machines with sheet metal tubs mounted on angleiron frames with perforated metal or wooden slat cylinders inside. From a technological perspective, washing machine manufacturers faced a number of challenges. These included discovering a method of transferring power from the motor to the mechanism, finding a suitable motor with sufficient initial starting torque, and ensuring that the operator did not get an electrical shock during operation.
In the transference of power, some washing machines were chain driven, some belt driven and others used shafts and gears. To overcome the initial resistance in starting a washing machine, a fractional horsepower motor which would not burn out or overheat during the startup period was used. This was usually a 1/8 or ¼ horsepower motor, manufactured outofhouse by Westinghouse or Robbins and Myers. To prevent electric shocks, the stator and rotor of the machine were enclosed in a housing equipped with a fan to prevent overheating.
By the early 1950s, many American manufacturers were supplying machines with a spindry feature to replace the wringer which removed buttons, and caused accidents involving hair and hands. In 1957, GE introduced a washing machine equipped with 5 push buttons to control wash temperature, rinse temperature, agitation speed and spin speed.

Dramas in Tamil History

The stages were used for different types of dances specific for the regions, e.g., Aychiyar Kuravai Kuravaik kUtthu, KoRRavaik The dances were, in essence an enactment of mythological legends. They were also used for conveying thanks to the deities for good rains and crops or paying homage to the valour or patronage of Kings and chieftains. iLango atikaL had portrayed various kinds of dances performed in the different regions in several chapters
The dancers for whom dancing was a hereditary avocation were called ViRaliar and KUtthar. The singers who accompanied them were called PANar Even at this early point in history, there was a distinction between the high form of dancing performed before the elites and those meant for the recreation of the rural folks.
When the Bhakthi movement was at its peak, stories pertaining to the godheads were played on the stage. Up to the medieval period, the Thamizh stage was used mainly as a forum for dances. This tradition continued till the 18th or 19th century when dance dramas; rAma n^Atakam were performed on the stage.
Other kinds of dance dramas included the PaLLu n^Atakam which is the dance drama performed by those in the agricultural sector describing themes specific to agrarian conditions e.g., MukkUdal paLLu by ennayinAp pulavar, n^ondip paLLu by MArimutthup pulavar is a humorous political satire. With the arrival of the Europeans into the subcontinent, the definition of 'stage' began to assume a different meaning. By this time, Shakespearean plays became popular throughout the English speaking world.

Duties of Doctors

To maintain the highest standards of professional conduct. To practice uninfluenced by motives of profit. To use caution while divulging discoveries or new techniques of treatment. To certify or testify only those matters with which the doctor has personal experience. To ensure that any act oradvice that could weaken physical or mental resistance of an individual must be used only in the interest of that individual.
Always remember the supreme obligation of preserving life. The patient should owe complete loyalty and faith to you and to the resources of medical sciences. Whenever a treatment or examination is beyond the capacity of the doctor, the advice of another doctor should be sought. A doctor must always preserve absolute secrecy concerning all he knows about a patient because of the confidence reposed in him.
Emergency care is a humanitarian duty which must be given unless it is clear that there are others better able to give it. A doctor must behave to his colleagues as he would have them behave toward him. A doctor must not entice patients from his colleagues. In the conflict between the ethical guidelines and law, Parliament should make a clear doctors’ public duty of confidentiality.
However, in the present situation, doctors should be guided by three major principles. First, disclosure must be limited either to the authority nominated by statute or with a need to know. Secondly, in respect of autonomy, doctors should attempt to persuade the patients to report the matter themselves. Finally, disclosure must be justifiable on the ethical guidelines of a condition being of sufficient seriousness before taking action.

Electric Chair

The electric chair is perhaps something that we take for granted for nowadays as the quickest and most humane way of executing a human being. In the early days, however, the proponents of the use of electricity as a means of death had to prove that it was indeed the most proficient manner of execution. Chair inventor Harold Brown had applied for the chair's patent and, thus, set out on an campaign to prove its efficiency. Using a prototype, Brown demonstrated the chair's capabilities on more than fifty cats and dogs. The New York commission (which was the first state to consider the new invention) needed more convincing. Brown replied by killing a cow before a panel of advisors. He emphasized his chair's ability by killing a horse. The panel was impressed. On June 4, 1888, electrocution became a legal means of capital punishment.
The state knew that they would need public support behind the method. In order to win over the public they sent Brown on tour with his chair. Brown traveled the state executing animals in all of the major population centers. Animals were recruited for the show as he went along. In Albany, Brown executed an orangutan. Its hair caught on fire. August 6, 1890 saw the first ever electric execution of a human being.
The history maker was William Kemmler of Buffalo, New York. Kemmler was guilty of butchering his mistress with a hatchet. A group of doctors and reporters gathered for the historic occasion. Kemmler was jolted for seventeen seconds. It failed to kill him. Kemmler was unconscious but still breathing. The embarrassed prison officials electrocuted him again for seventy seconds. Kemmler thrashed and convulsed as the electrodes seared his head and arms, filling the room with the smell of burning flesh. Some witness fainted, while others fled the room. The killing took eight minutes.
While many critics rallied for the return of the gallows, New York remained faithful to the chair, executing two more criminals without incident. The most botched electric execution, however, was the fourth. William Taylor was slated for execution on July 27, 1893. The first jolt of electricity caused his legs to stiffen with a force so great that they tore loose from the chair's ankle straps. Like Kemmler, Taylor was still alive. When the executioners attempted to send a second charge through Taylor's body it was discovered that the generator in the powerhouse had blown. Taylor was removed from the chair and placed on a cot. Officials kept him alive with chloroform and morphine so that he could be officially killed by an active current. An hour and nine minutes later Taylor was returned to the chair and given a more than adequate charge.

Jewellery in India

Jewelery has been part of the Indian civilization since ancient history. They were in fashion since ancient civilizations as Harappa and Mohanjodaro. Made out of almost any material, jewelry is basically adorned to highlight nearly any body part. Be it the traditional jewelry or the latest ones which are increasingly in demand, i.e. the costume & imitation jewelery. There is no dearth when it comes to accentuating the beauty with varied imaginative & stunningly designed jewelry items.
When it comes to defining the materials used for shaping jewelry items, then anything under the roof of the sky can be transformed into breathtaking ornamental items. Such as, metals such as gold & silver, copper, ivory, woods, precious gemstones as diamonds & pearls, beads, shells, leather, plastic, glass, bone & others. They help define varied intricately designed shapes adding on to the beauty of these adorning items.
Jewelry are perfect for any occasion, be it a formal or ceremonial occasion or casual ones. They do not need any particularly specified occasion for exhibiting the beauty. Wide array of jewelry items which can beautify the varied body parts are :Bangles, Anklets, Nose pins, Hair pins, Necklaces, Rings, Earrings, Armlets, Bracelets, Toe Rings
With growing demand of Art jewelry, very much in vogue, artisans are coming up with innovative ideas & designs to give an ethereal look to a persona easily available & quite cost effective. Nowadays, new variations are hitting the showrooms such as wire sculpture (wrap) jewelry which are being created using anything from base metal wire with rock tumbled stone to precious metals and precious gemstones.

Airplane

The term airplane generally denotes the landplane, or landbased airplane, but it applies also to several other categories of aircraft, including the carrierbased plane, the seaplane, and the amphibian. The principal variation in structure can be found in the landing apparatus. The carrierbased plane, a type of landplane designed for use on an aircraft carrier, is fitted with a tail hook that engages a cable stretched across the deck to arrest the plane after landing. The seaplane employs pontoons instead of the wheel gear of the landplane. In the variety of seaplane known as the flying boat, the fuselage is constructed as a hull, similar to that of a seagoing vessel, and serves to keep the plane buoyant. The amphibian is equipped with both wheel gear and hull or pontoons to permit operation with equal effectiveness on land and water.
Before World War II, flying boats were used for military transports and for intercontinental commercial service. These planes were limited to low flying speeds and to low landing speeds in water. With the advent of planes that fly and land much faster, large planes have been limited to landbased operation. The amphibian, even slower because of its double undercarriage, is less commonly employed than the landplane. For light sportplanes, amphibious floats are available. Generally resembling conventional pontoons, they have a recessed wheel located at the center of balance of the seaplane; the wheelwell is waterproof. The wheel tire does not extend far enough to add much drag to the float in the water, but it protrudes far enough to enable wheeled landings to be made on hardsurfaced runways or shortcut grass.
More successful types of heavierthanair craft include the VTOL craft, the STOL craft, and the convertiplane. The VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing) craft is an airplane that can rise up vertically, fly horizontally, and then reverse the procedure for a landing. The term VTOL is limited to describing aircraft with performances similar to those of conventional airplanes but with additional vertical takeoff and landing ability. Several means are used to lift VTOL aircraft off the ground. The direct downward thrust of jet engines is used in several designs. Enormous power is needed to lift a craft in this manner, much more than is required to propel it horizontally. Rotating wings and ducted fans are also used for direct lift, but they tend to introduce drag into the horizontal flight. Convertiplanes, combining the rotating wings of helicopters with the fixed wings of airplanes, have been used for shortdistance commercial VTOL operation. They compete directly with helicopters, however.
The STOL (short takeoff and landing) craft is an airplane that takes off and lands very steeply, thus requiring little runway. For a given payload, it is much more efficient in terms of fuel consumption and power requirements than a VTOL craft. It is also capable of higher speeds and longerrange flights than a helicopter. For lighterthanair craft, see AIRSHIP,; BALLOON.

Painting

Painting taken literally is the practice of applying colour to a surface (support) such as paper, canvas, wood glass or other. However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing, composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner.Painting is used as a mode of representing, documenting and expressing all the varied intents and subjects that are as numerous as there are practitioners of the craft.
Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic, abstract, be loaded with narrative content, symbolism, emotion or be political in nature. A large portion of the history of painting is dominated by spiritual motifs and ideas; sites of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery to biblical scenes rendered on the interior walls and ceiling of The Sistine Chapel to depictions of the human body itself as a spiritual subject. Colour and tone are the essence of painting as sound and pitch are of music.
Colour is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be. Some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, Newton, have written their own colour theory. Moreover the use of language is only a generalisation for a colour equivalent. The word "red", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a formalised register of different colours in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music, such as C in music, although the Pantone system is widely used in the commercial printing and graphic design industry for this purpose.
Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include. Some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. In 1829, the first photograph was produced. From the mid to late 19th century, photographic processes improved and, as it became more widespread, painting lost much of its historic purpose to provide an accurate record of the observable world.

Kitchen Tips

When cutting apples into slices or chunks, sprinkle them with lemon juice or lemonlime soda to keep them from turning brown. They can also be soaked in apple juice to keep them from turning brown. Apples can be peeled before or after they are sliced but it is easier to peel them before slicing.
To ripen bananas quickly, place an apple with the bananas in a brown paper bag for approximately two days. Ripe bananas can be saved for baking purposes by mashing, placing them in a plastic bag, and freezing until you are ready to use them. You can also place the whole banana in a bag and freeze it in its skin.
When selecting, choose carrots that are firm and not oversized. They should be bright orange to deep orange in color. Avoid any that have soft spots or other blemishes. When storing carrots, remove the tops because they will draw water from the carrots and cause them to wilt. If carrots wilt, cut one end off and stand them up in a glass of cold water to crisp them up again. Peeled carrots are sweeter because they have the slightly bitter tasting skins removed.
When selecting, choose cauliflower heads that are firm and compact. They should have green leaves surrounding the head. Avoid heads that seem loose or have yellowing leaves. Also avoid cauliflower heads that have florets that are starting to brown or have other blemishes. Once the florets are cut off the cauliflower, the stems can be chopped into pieces and then added to a fresh salad to provide a crunchy texture.
When selecting, choose garlic that is plump and firm with paperlike skins that are tight and intact. Avoid any that are soft or that have begun to shrivel. Place garlic cloves in the microwave for 15 seconds and the skins should peel off easily. Keep peeled and mince garlic fresh by placing it in a small jar and pouring just enough olive oil over it to cover the garlic and then place it in the refrigerator. It will keep its fresh flavor for about a week.
Don't throw out sprouting garlic. Instead, plant the cloves fairly close together in a pot or in the garden (if your climate is suitable at the time). The new shoots that appear will have a mild garlic flavor and can be used in the same manner as regular chives.

Typewriter

A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical device with a set of "keys" that, when pressed, cause characters to be printed on a medium, usually paper. For much of the 20th century, typewriters were indispensable tools in business offices and for many professional writers. By the end of the 1980s, word processor applications on personal computer had largely replaced the tasks previously accomplished with typewriters.
Typewriters, however, remain popular in the developing world and among some niche markets. Manufacturers of typewriters have included E. Remington and Sons, IBM, Imperial typewriters, Oliver Typewriter Company, Olivetti, Royal Typewriter Company, Smith Corona, Underwood Typewriter Company.
In 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter, but nothing further is known. Other early developers of typewriting machines include Pellegrino Turri, who also invented carbon paper. Many of these early machines, including Turri's, were developed to enable the blind to write.
In 1829, William Austin Burt patented a machine called the " Typographer." Like many other early machines, it is sometimes listed as the "first typewriter"; the Science Museum (London) describes it merely as "the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented," but even that claim may be excessive, since Turri's machine is well known. Even in the hands of its inventor, it was slower than handwriting. Burt and his promoter John D. Sheldon never found a buyer for the patent, and it was never commercially produced. Because it used a dial to select each character rather than keys, it was called an "index typewriter" rather than a "keyboard typewriter," if it is to be considered a typewriter at all.

Plastics

The United States plastics industry is a multibillion dollar business, and it is still growing at a rate faster than most other industries in this country. Plastics have been used in every major market in the United States, including construction, packaging, automobiles and boats, electrical/electronics, pipe and fittings, and consumer goods, to mention just a few.
Plastics are basic materials, on par with metals, glass, wood, and paper, and they are essential to the needs of virtually the entire spectrum of American business. As lifestyles change, plastics will become ever more valuable to tommorrow's advanced new concepts in architecture, aerospace, communications, transportation even to medicine and the arts.
Plastic materials trace their origin in this country back to 1868, when a young printer named John Wesley Hyatt came up with Celluloid, the first American plastic. He mixed pyroxylin, made from cotton (one of nature's polymerics), and nitric acid, with camphor to create an entirely different and new product. Celluloid quickly moved into many markets, including the first photographic film used by George Eastman to produce the first motion picture film in 1882. The material is still in use today under its chemical name, cellulose nitrate.
In 1909, Dr. Lee Hendrik Baekeland introduced phenoformaldehyde plastics (or "phenolics", as they are more popularly known), the first plastic to achieve worldwide acceptance. More importantly, Baekeland also evolved techniques for controlling and modifying the phenolformaldehyde reaction so that products could be formed under heat and pressure from the material. This characteristic of liquefying the material so that it can be formed into various shapes under heat and pressure is still common to most plastics.

Apple

Although the origins of apples seems to be an ongoing debate; historians generally will start a talk about apple history with the ancient Egyptians or other civilizations around the Caspian Sea and also in China. However we do know that the ancient Egyptians kept excellent records about almost everything including their apple crops.
In the 13th century BCE, the famous Ramses II decreed that apples of various varities were to be cultivated in the Nile Delta. Evidence also shows that the ancient Greeks , as far back as the 7th century BCE were growing and harvesting apples. In ancient Rome the great Roman statesmen Pliny the Elder, recognized 37 different types of apples in his ancient scroll the Historia naturalis. (vegparadise)
Most Americans can identify apples as strictly American; however it wasn't until westward expansion that the apple played a part in American history with the famous Johnny Apple seed. Johnny apple seed was indeed a real person, going by the name of John Chapman. John was born in Leominster, Massachusetts on September 26,1774. His story starts around the turn of the 19th century when he started to purchase apple seeds from a Pennsylvania cider mill .
After purchasing seeds Johnny started to the Midwest where he started nurseries. In the growing frontier newly established homesteads were required under law to plant 50 apple trees in their first year. Apples quickly became a staple in settlers diets. To help these settlers Johnny would sell seeds and help pioneers in growing their own trees. Johnny apple seed settled to the Ohio and Indiana region where he owned a lot of land. The misconception is that he walked with a satchel and planted seeds across the U.S. he did do a lot of traveling and helped settlers, however he spent most of his time on his own tracts of land. He primarily spread apples by selling and giving settlers trees.

History of the Greek coins

Ever wonder why our coins today look the way they do? How the basis for the decoration of coins developed? Today, most bills and coins alike share the common pattern of depicting the profile or bust of a ruler on the obverse, while the reverse bears the image of an important civic symbol be it a building or an animal. This tradition began with the ancient Greeks.
From about the eighth century B.C. and even after the Greeks were absorbed into the kingdoms of Alexander the Great and his successors, the Greek world was characterized by the polis, the citystate, of which there were several hundred. Each polis consisted of a city and its surrounding countryside, and each had its own form of government, its own patron deities and heroes and sanctuaries dedicated to them, and its own distinctive economy.
The poleis were fiercely independent, even when they were ruled by tyrants or dominated by Hellenistic kings, and their coins are eloquent testimony to their autonomy. Almost from their earliest appearance Greek coins used a combination of figures, symbols, and inscriptions to emphasize the independence and individuality of the poleis, depicting their patron deities and heroes, products, and even visual puns on the cities' names.
The historical portraits on early Greek coins are a significant contribution to the history of art. Within them they reflect the highest ideals of the traditional art of the day, as well as provide exact replicas of images of many sacred and important buildings and temples, making their historical importance incalculable. From their very beginnings, coins were not merely chunks of metal to be used in commerce, but important tools for the expression of art and the communication of religious devotion and civic pride.

Violin

The violin is a stringed musical instrument comprising four strings tuned a fifth apart. It is the smallest and highesttuned member of the violin family of string instruments, which also includes the viola, cello and double bass. The lowest string (and hence the lowest note) is the G just below middle C, then in ascending order D, A and E.
The violin is a carefully made hollow wooden box, with a neck protruding from the top, and a internal sound post connecting the front (belly) and the back. The sides of the violin, curiously, are called ribs. The belly is reinforced by an internal bass bar, which runs vertically through the instrument underneath the lowest string.
The four violin strings run from a tailpiece attached to the base of the violin, across an intricately carved wooden bridge, then upward just above the fingerboard. At the top end of the fingerboard, the strings cross the nut, a very small second bridge, mounted just slightly above the fingerboard. They then enter the pegbox, where they are wound around their tuning pegs, which are mounted sideways through tightly fitting holes in the pegbox. The tip of the pegbox is ornamented with a carved wooden scroll.
The bridge of a violin has two purposes. First, it holds the strings in an arched configuration, permitting each to be touched separately by the bow. The bridge also transmits the sound vibrations of the strings to the belly, from which they are transmitted to the back by the sound post.